'History of public administration Essay\r'

'Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketch stocky Historical accounts of African public administration oft quantify spicylight the colonial setting and usually leave out pre-colonial Africa. The African civil dish up has its roots in precolonial debuts on which European powers relied to build the colonial land and consolidate their administration. Thus, this chapter analyzes the development of African administration from the pre-colonial date up to the present. The initial section discusses the pre-colonial spot. The colonial outline constitutes the routine section.\r\nThe third section deals with the post-colonial period and discusses about problems associated with African administration. 1. The Pre-Colonial gunpoint: From the Ashes of Pharaohs to the Berlin crowd At the last of the prehistoric period (10 000 BC), just about African planetary bands began to settle to a greater extent permanently in villages along the Nile River to develop the semi governmental foun dation of ancient Egypt. As these former(a) farmers increased their mastery all over alter and animal life, irrigation became a key development outline to increase food production, which in turn multiply their populations.\r\nEventually, different villages came to recognize their common interests, to coordinate their efforts and protract community linkages. People from different communities joined in concert through confederation or conquest for purposes of occupation or defense, and positive African © encyclopaedia of deportment Support Systems (EOLSS) overt ADMINISTRATION AND unexclusive take shape _or_ administration of regimen †Vol. I †culture of African administration: Pre-Colonial times and since †Emizet F. Kisangani pudding st matchlesss, globe powerdoms, and chieftaincies.\r\nTwo types of systems, class-conscious political systems and horizontal or acephalous societies, essential to help generate invariable communities and foster pros perity. U SA NE M SC PL O E †C EO H AP LS TE S R S Stateless(prenominal) societies were broken political entities and had no bureaucracies as they were roughlyly ground on kinship. Hierarchical societies, however, had bureaucracies to carry out definite hold ups such as ingathering taxes, lapse ceremonies, socialize dignitaries, and compelling people to do the shapers’ bidding.\r\nThese polities, which evolved before the arrival of Europeans in Africa, were either alter or de interchangeize political entities presided over by emperor moths, tabbys, chiefs, or host commanders. The following analysis covers the premier(prenominal) ranked variety of rule that emerged some three millennia BC in ancient Egypt, followed by a brief overview of chivalric Africa. The final sub-section discusses the African administration up to the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885. 1. 1. Ancient Civilization of Africa: The Case of Egypt\r\nwell-nigh 3300 BC, farming lineages along the Nile Valley joined together as villages to increase production of food and to play themselves against outsiders. From these villages regional confederations of Upper and Lower Egypt developed. By 3100 BC, a central authority emerged and unified these confederations under the rule of cleric pharaohs. From 2700 to 2181, six dynasties succeeded each other to form the white-haired e demesne. A century and a one-half of civil war and idyll rivalries gave rise to the starting negotiate purpose and the midriff Kingdoms that govern Egypt from 2080 to 1640 BC.\r\nThe Middle Kingdom was replaced by the Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom from 1570 to 1090 BC. Three dynasties (18th through 20th) ruled in the New Kingdom and the ordinal Intermediate Period began around 1089 BC with the Kushite Kings. The Egyptian empire was multinational consequent to the conquest of strange nations. The Old and Middle Kingdoms were passing centralized and ruled by â€Å"god- powe rs” or pharaohs. With its capital at Memphis, the Old Kingdom was shared out into provinces. Next to the queen mole rat was the vizier, the administrative authorise of the king, who was in like manner in shoot down of mean solar day to day administrative, fiscal, and judicial matters.\r\nAlthough very few administrative documents give survived, court documents provide a glimpse of the Egyptian bureaucracy. Three basic administrative divisions existed: the Department of the power point of the South, the Office of Government Labor, and the Treasury. The Palermo rocknroll candy provides further demo of administrative structure in the collection of tax r blushue and in the assessment of Egyptian wealth. On the Stone was documented a biennial administrative numerate that left nothing unaccounted for, so that taxes could be assessed even on the basis of canals, lakes, wells, and trees of an estate.\r\nThe system consisted of a hierarchical structure with diverse admini strative agencies spreading end-to-end the kingdom for effective management. Another regimenal childbed was the administration of justice, on which was founded the concept of ma‘at (or justice), whereby some high non-Christian priests bore the title of priest of Ma‘at. In addition to the capital city of Memphis, on that point were other townships of importance that © encyclopaedia of disembodied spirit Support Systems (EOLSS) general ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC constitution †Vol. I †Development of African judicature: Pre-Colonial times and since †Emizet F.\r\nKisangani made up provinces headed by town governors, who were likewise chief priests in charge of temple tax income in m whatsoever parts of Ancient Egypt. tike temples were the subject of central government regulations to avoid any strong power at the provincial level. However, during the rootage intermediate period, the office of governor in charge of civil affairs became the office of chief priest. U SA NE M SC PL O E †C EO H AP LS TE S R S The purpose of bureaucracy in these early kingdoms was to facilitate the transfer of resources from different provinces to the king’s court.\r\nIf early administrations were in charge of maintaining irrigation and agricultural output, later administrations seemed to be more involved in supervising construction proceed and wealth transfer. The proliferation of these later types of bureaucracies, at the expense of those that used to maintain the agricultural system, would believably cast off produced pressures on the agricultural output and dexterity have been the outset sign of political dilapidate in Ancient Egypt. The centralized system itself betwixt the king, court officers, and ambitious governors may also have led to the same result.\r\nThe New Kingdom and the leash Intermediate Period generated a great band of documentation about Egyptian political and administrative life. The form of governmen t remained the same, based on divine kingship. The government always stressed the religious function of the political system. Under the auspices of Gods, the government was evaluate to maintain the integrity of Egyptian territory and expound its frontiers. The most important function of the government was to pee-pee civic and individual certificate, and the vizier carried out the duty of ensuring that honor and regulations were obeyed end-to-end the bureaucracy.\r\nThe society was divided into hierarchical stratifications with the king at the top, a crushed congregation of high-level and wealthy officials next, and a much lifesizer group of bureaucrats (scribes), priests, passs, stable masters, citizens, cultivators, and herdsmen filling the bottom layer. The Egyptian political system under the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period was divided into an internal government and a government of conquests. Internally, the civil government was range by two viziers (north ern and southern), overseer of the granaries of upper and unhorse Egypt, and the chief taxing master.\r\nThe two viziers also manage the overseer of the treasury and lower level officials in charge of bureaucracy, judiciary, and the police. At the lowest level of the administrative hierarchy were the chiefs, town mayors, and councils. The government of conquests had several(prenominal) governors who supervise vassal kings and their throng commanders. Most of the northwestwardern Lands were undersized and scattered, and under the direct control of various battalion commanders. The goal of this decentralization scheme was to obstruct anyone from supreme a large estate and challenging the king’s power.\r\nThe governor of the Southern Lands was the Viceroy of Kush and his role became important internally at the end of the twentieth Dynasty. He also supervised two deputies and a battalion commander. Military forces were all centralized under one commander. In addition to th ese administrative entities, there existed a religious government hierarchy, with the â€Å"overseer of prophets” at the top, a position held at various times by a vizier who was the head of two high priests. Below them was the priesthood bureaucracy. The corps of the centralized system was hold by a small group of healthy officials.\r\nThey headed each department and reported directly to the king who appointed ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY †Vol. I †Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since †Emizet F. Kisangani and removed them. The bureaucracy consisted of a group of educated scribes whose role consisted of collecting taxes, conducting censuses, regulating agriculture, and administering justice and law with a small police force. A headmaster army was divided into various units, each with its own hierarchy of officers. U SA NE\r\nM SC PL O E †C EO H AP LS TE S R S Press ures on land and rising inflation may have been politically significant in later days of the New Kingdom, though bureaucratic inefficiency and abuse of power were probably the main causes of scotch collapse. Besides the deterioration of administrative integrity, another major(ip)(ip) cause that weakened the kingship was the changing relationship in the midst of the king, civil government, army, and a few powerful families. any(prenominal) families came to control major economic resources of the state, and the civil service became less susceptible to royal control.\r\nIn addition, the kings’ tours of their provinces became less frequent, and royal princes and other deputies carried out religious rites at once performed by the kings. During the ensuing Third Intermediate Period (1069 †664 BC), Egypt was in perpetual crisis and the Egyptian civilization disappeared after(prenominal) the Roman conquest around 30 BC. In summary, the evolution of Ancient Egypt is characte rized by the rise and parentage of large scale governments that reflect alternating periods of labor union and fragmentation. 1. 2. Medieval Africa Medieval Africa was different from the Ancient in several respects.\r\nFirst, Medieval leaders attempted to fit local traditions and regional autonomy in reception to their people’s needs by underdeveloped and consolidating large-scale kingdoms and empires for purposes of mickle or defense. A second difference was the impact of Islam on African societies. Muslims believed that one God (Allah) called on them to undertake jihads (comm single known as holy war against non-believers) when necessary. The most renowned of Africa’s medieval empires of Mali, Songhay and Morocco rose to the highest stages of their external influence with Islam as the regal religion.\r\n other(a) medieval African kingdoms and empires developed indigenous political ideologies based on regional tradition and beliefs, while Coptic Christianity r emained the official state religion in the Abyssinian kingdom of medieval Ethiopia. In 969 A. D. , Muslims from the Maghreb conquered Egypt and naturalised the Fatimid Dynasty in Cairo (c. 970-1170 A. D. ), which was highly hierarchical and whose armed services was highly professionalized. This strict hierarchy of officials, and the exacting powers of the vizier, left room neither for the autonomous tendencies of provincial governors nor for the growth of widespread corruption.\r\nTolerant of other religions, the system let Copts and Jews occupy prestigious positions in the administration. The centralized administration controlled tax revenues, the payment of troops, and the allocation of military fiefs. The Fatimid administration was in charge of regulating and distributing the irrigate of the Nile River. Dams and canals were regularly repaired and improved; even an occasional period of low water did not greatly wrong the general economic situation. When the Fatimid rule in Egy pt was endanger by European Christian Crusaders (c.\r\n1170), it was Egypt’s professional soldiers, or Mamluks ( hard worker-soldier), who rallied behind Saladin to defeat the Crusaders. He hence open a rising Mamluk Dynasty in ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY †Vol. I †Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since †Emizet F. Kisangani Cairo from 1171 to1517. By the thirteenth century, the institution of the slave-soldiers became an integral part of the political and social system in many Muslim countries. The Mamluk oligarchy never certain in its ranks\r\nsomeone who was not a slave soldier, so that the military establishment not only remained hierarchical, but also continued to be a caste dominated by slave soldiers. U SA NE M SC PL O E †C EO H AP LS TE S R S Most Mamluk caliphates were divided into military fiefs centralized under one single kalif. The basic administrative entity was the village because the Mamluk dynasty obtained most of its revenues from landed estates. A major innovation to ensure payment was that the peasants were prohibited from departure their villages without permission.\r\nIn addition to land taxes, the Mamluk caliphates drew their revenues from customs duties, based on ad valorem and the religion of the merchants, so that Christian importers had to pay taxes as high as 30%, whereas Muslim importers paid only 10%. This canonical tax was abolished under the reform of 1316. several(prenominal) other kingdoms, such as Ghana and Mali, developed in Medieval Western Sudan. But the stovepipe known was the Kingdom of Songhay founded around the trading town of Gao (c. 1000 A. D. ). The Songhay Kingdom broke away from Mali and later on arose to become the third great empire in the medieval western Sudan (c.\r\n1460-1590). Songhay’s founding emperor, Sunni Ali, accomplished empurpled authority northward into the Sahara in i nvest to control international trade routes and valuable deposits of rock salt (which was mined and cut into large blocks to be traded for gold). Following Ali’s death, one of his generals, Muhammad Toure, overthrew the legitimate heir, and embarked on a hajj to Mecca. In 1496 he returned to pursue jihad against nonMuslims. He conquered new territories and ruled over Songhay’s expanded empire as Caliph of West Africa.\r\nUnder Muhammad’s authority (1493-1528), Songhay, particularly the towns of Timbuktu and Jenne, rose to become one of the medieval world’s largest multinational empires. The administrative system was blossom forth enough to provide lower level citizens some type of upward social mobility. The empire was highly decentralized and Islam was used as a tool to assimilate different communities. Different categories of slaves cultivated fields, constructed adobe brick buildings and mosques, acted as porters, or served as soldiers and official s in the purplish government.\r\nSome of the latter rose through government and military bureaucracies by virtue of deserveorious work to achieve high positions of administrative responsibility, as did soldier Muhammad Toure, when he rose by military merit to become a general and then became the emperor of Songhay. As emperor of Songhay, Muhammad established effective central supervision over provincial governors. He also reformed Songhay’s imperial government so that merit (rather than birth) became the principal criterion for forward motion in bureaucracy.\r\nEventually, after Muhammad became blind and was deposed in 1528, Songhay’s trans-Saharan trade declined. This was also partly due to competition from European sea traders along the West African Atlantic coast, which undercut the trans-Saharan gold trade. After severe political crises of succession disputes, rebellions and civil war that Songhay emperors faced during the 1580s, their imperial army was decisive ly defeated by Morocco’s elite musketeers at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. Other kingdoms and chieftaincies came up throughout Central, Eastern and Southern\r\n©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY †Vol. I †Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since †Emizet F. Kisangani Africa. Although some of these polities were decentralized or confederated, most of them developed as centralized systems where the king or the chief represented the top, followed by the house of the king or an inner circle of advisors, and finally the Council of Elders as the legislative branch. The army and bureaucrats were in charge of maintaining security and law, collecting taxes, and conducting censuses.\r\nIn most polities, age was a major social feature of stratification, while in other areas the system was meritocractic. 1. 3. Beyond the Medieval age to the Nineteenth Century U SA NE M SC PL O E †C EO H A P LS TE S R S In the late 1500s and through the 1700s, Europeans and Arabs introduced new weapons and made new demands for captives of war throughout Africa to meet the demands of a suppuration international slave trade. Consequently, many of Africa’s antecedent patterns of political and economic growth were disrupted, even though many of the great traditions of medieval African government activity and administration continued to guide their evolution.\r\nAs African kingdoms and empires continued to develop, and trade between coastal cities and inner(a) regions expanded throughout the continent, various African peoples established political confederations based on religious ideology, commercialised linkages and/or military authority. Such confederations were committed to establishing broader patriot ideologies, promoting literacy and advancement by merit, expanding both regional and international commerce, and undertaking significant administrative and military reforms. The first great reformer and leader in North Africa was an Ottoman military commander, Muhammad Ali (1805-1848).\r\nHe established the first secular schools, engineering and medical colleges, raw factories, modern-day printing presses, and stateowned textile and munitions factories. His successors continued his policies of borrowing foreign capital and building projects, such as the Suez canal that was completed in 1869. In the west, the original Asante confederation, established by seven clans near the city of Kumasi (in modern day Ghana), united around the symbolic palmy Stool of their ruler Asante-Hene. This confederation built roads and promoted agriculture, commerce, industry and education through self-help and self-reliance.\r\nThe Asante emperors implemented several modernization policies in administration that included promoting advancement by merit and the development of state try through public investment. By 1874, the British imperial army defeated the Asante army and annexed the Fante territories into their Gold sloping trough colony. In East Africa (c. 1800-1885), there was also a movement toward centralization of authority and broadened commercial linkages throughout the region, from Ethiopia’s Highlands to the Limpopo River in Southern Africa.\r\nIn the first half of the nineteenth century, however, Africa continued to be importantly disrupted by international trade in slaves, even as new Euro-American markets began to demand large imports of such African-based commodities as palm oil, cotton, peanuts, and ivory. By mid-century, European merchants realized that Africans could produce such valuable exports more efficiently and humanely by working in their own countries than by working as slaves in the Americas. Many other nineteenth century African nations were consciously modernizing their various political economies and shifting to regional confederacies,\r\n'